A Discussion of “Increasing Text Complexity”
(K. Hess and S. Biggam, 2004)

The instruction and assessment of reading comprehension presents unique challenges to classroom teachers and test developers alike; and the criteria used in selecting a variety and range of appropriate texts are essential to meeting those purposes. In the classroom, students learn to apply and practice a variety of reading strategies, for different purposes and with different text types. Over time, students who are exposed to a variety of text types with increasing complexity also learn how text features differ by genre, and they gain confidence in pealing back the layers of complexity for a deeper understanding of what is read.  In test development, the overall number of test items is driven by the length and type of reading passages and the number of items possible accompanying each passage. Passages for reading assessment, drawn from “authentic” text whenever possible, should include both literary and informational texts. A series of questions accompanying each reading passage may include initial understanding of text, analysis and interpretation of text, or a combination of both types of questions, especially for longer text passages.

We have learned from NAEP research (1985) that difficulty of text passages was one of the three most important factors in reading comprehension performance of 4th, 8th, and 12th grade students. The other two factors were familiarity with subject matter presented in text and the type (literal, inferential, etc.) of question asked. (Chall and Conard, 1991) Other research suggests that at grades 2 and 3, word difficulty may influence text complexity more than other factors. (Anderson, 1992) Lipson and Wixon (2003) summarize the challenges of understanding text complexity this way:

"In the past, one of the few text features that was given much attention was its difficulty or readability, as measured by factors such as the number of syllables in the words and the number of words in the sentences. Current research has demonstrated that a number of other factors have a significant impact on both how much and what students understand and learn from a text. The presence or absence of these factors determines the extent to which a given text can be considered 'considerate' (to enable readers with minimal effort) or 'inconsiderate' (text requiring much greater effort). (Armbruster, 1984) "

Factors that Influence Increasing Text Complexity:

• Word Difficulty and Language Structure, including vocabulary and sentence type and complexity (often determined through the use of multiple readability formulas)
• Text Structure and Discourse Style (e.g., satire, humor)
• Genre and the Characteristic Features of the each type of text
• Background Knowledge and/or Degree of Familiarity with Content needed by the reader
• Level of Reasoning Required (e.g., sophistication of themes and ideas presented)
• Format and Layout, including how text is organized/layout, size and location of print, graphics, and other book/print features
• Length of Text

Note: Sample grade-appropriate text titles are included at the end of the descriptors for each grade span as examples of text that would illustrate many of the characteristics described in the table. In many cases, particular teachers and schools will choose to introduce these specific texts at grade levels below or above the grade level indicated. While every descriptor might not be evident in a sample text passage, it is expected that the sample texts reflect the intent of the descriptors, and many of the indicators.

Text Complexity Descriptors End of Grade 1	Text Complexity Descriptors End of Grade 2
Includes a variety of  literary texts (such as fantasy, realistic fiction, poetry), with some complexity in story structure (e.g., multiple episodes)  and literary language Simple informational books/text Illustrations provide moderate support for the reader Texts have several sentences per page, with sentences of moderate length and generally simple sentence structure Very straightforward text structures Familiar content In narrative text, details related to story elements (setting, characterization, events, resolution) provide strong support for both literal and interpretive meanings (e.g., for drawing basic inferences or basic conclusions) Informational texts use clear and consistent formats (e.g., print location on page),illustrations, and simple graphics to support understanding of content Simple punctuation is used: period, question mark, exclamation point, quotation marks, commas	Includes a variety of literary texts (such as realistic fiction, folktales, humorous stories, poetry)with elaborated episodes and events, and some extended descriptions Stories usually have well-developed characters and episodes Informational books/text Some use of unfamiliar vocabulary, supported by other text features (e.g., such as headings and chapter titles) Illustrations may or may not be present on each page, but usually provide low to moderate support for the reader. Sentence structure becomes more complex -- including causal phrases. Straightforward text structures in informational text Content usually familiar In narrative text,  details related to story elements (setting, characterization, goals, attempts, consequences and resolutions) provide moderate support for both literal and interpretive meanings (e.g., for predicting logical outcomes or drawing inferences about problem/solution) Informational texts use clear formats (e.g., use of simple headings to organize information into categories), illustrations that extend meaning, and simple graphics to support understanding of content Full range of punctuation used, except dashes, colons, and semicolons
Sample Texts Grade 1 There’s a Nightmare in My Closet; The Very Busy Spider; Nobody Listens to Andrew; Ants (Sunshine Science Series)	Sample Texts Grade 2 George and Martha; Cam Jansen and the Mystery of the Dinosaur Bones; The Stories Julian Tells;  Happy Birthday Martin Luther King (Scholastic)

Text Complexity Descriptors Grades 7-8 and High School
Includes a full range of literary genres, including realistic and historical fiction, science fiction, fantasy, and folk literature Informational/functional texts include primary sources, personal narratives and autobiographies, schedules, and manuals, as well as synthesized information found in textbooks Increasing number of uncommon words, including words with non-literal meanings and more abstract vocabulary; Word choice can reflect diverse historical and cultural context; Text often includes technical words with specialized meaning(s) Language in narrative text is more elaborated and complex, and includes a wide range of dialogue, use of dialects, and varied sentence structure to convey specific meanings Prose style matches text purpose (informational, recreational, provocative, etc.) Relationships between ideas become less explicit and require more inference or interpretation Understanding content requires increasing cultural and historical breadth of knowledge More sophisticated themes Texts used often call for literary analysis Informational texts use format, illustrations, and graphics to support understanding of meaning Text features often include advance organizers, inset text, technology support
Sample Texts Grade 7 Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry; Diary of a Young Girl; Muse magazine	Sample Texts Grade 8 The Upstairs Room; Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass; The Giver; Science magazine	Sample Texts Grades 9-12 To Kill a Mockingbird; Night; Into Thin Air; Newsweek magazine

The following sources were referenced to develop text complexity descriptors:

• Caldwell, Reading Assessment, Guilford Press, 2002
• Crafton. Standards in Practice: Grades K-2. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1996
• Chall, Bissex, & others. Qualitative Assessment of Text Difficulty: A Practical Guide for Teachers and Writers. Brookline Books, Inc., 1996
• Fountas and Pinnell, Guiding Readers and Writers Grades 3-6, Heinemann, 2001
• Put Reading First, National Institute for Literacy, 2001
• Lipson and Wixson, Assessment and Instruction of Reading and Writing Difficulty, Pearson Education, 2003
• National Assessment Governing Board and NAEP Reading Consensus Project. Draft NAEP Reading Framework. U.S. Government Printing Office, April 2002.
• National Assessment Governing Board and NAEP Reading Consensus Project. Reading Framework for the National Assessment of Educational Progress: 1992-200. U.S. Government Printing Office, 2000.
• New Standards Primary Literacy Committee.  Reading & Writing Grade by Grade: Primary Literacy Standards for Kindergarten through Third Grade. National Center on Education and the Economy and the University of Pittsburgh, 1999.
• Pinnell and Fountas, Leveled Books for Readers Grades 3-6. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2002
• Rees & Shortland-Jones with Education Department of Western Australia, Reading Developmental Continuum, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1994.
• Sierra-Perry.  Standards in Practice: Grades 3-5. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1996.
• US Department of Education, Reading: Knowing What Works, K-3, National Institute for Literacy, 2000
• Weaver, Brenda. Leveling Books K-6: Matching Readers to Text. International Reading Association, Inc., 2000.